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A bit of history...
Descended from Tin Hinan
in the region that is now
Tafilalt, the Tuareg are
ancient Saharan peoples
described by Herodotus.
He described the ancient
Libyan people, the Garamantes.
Archaeological evidence
is found in the ruins of
Germa. Later, the Tuareg
ancestors expanded southward
into the Sahel.
For over two millennia,
the Tuareg operated the
trans-Saharan caravan trade
connecting the great cities
on the southern edge of
the Sahara via five desert
trade routes to the northern
(Mediterranean) coast of
Africa.[2] The Tuareg adopted
camel nomadism, along with
its distinctive form of
social organization, from
camel-herding Arabs about
two thousand years ago,
when the camel was introduced
to the Sahara from Arabia.
Like numerous African and
other groups in pre-modern
times, the Tuareg once took
captives, either for trade
and sale, or for domestic
labor purposes. Those who
were not sold became assimilated
into the Tuareg community.
Captive servants and herdsmen
formed a component of the
division of labor in camel
nomadism.
In the late nineteenth century,
the Tuareg resisted the
French colonial invasion
of their Central Saharan
homelands. Tuareg broadswords
were no match for the more
advanced weapons of French
squadrons. After numerous
massacres on both sides,[4]
the Tuareg were subdued
and required to sign treaties
in Mali 1905 and Niger 1917.
In southern Algeria, the
French met some of the strongest
resistance from the Ahaggar
Tuareg. Their Amenokal,
traditional chief Moussa
ag Amastan, fought numerous
battles in defense of the
region. Finally, Tuareg
territories were taken under
French governance, and their
confederations were largely
dismantled and reorganized.
Before French colonization,
the Tuareg were organized
into loose confederations,
each consisting of a dozen
or so tribes. Each of the
main groups had a traditional
leader called Amenokal,
along with an assembly of
tribal chiefs (im?aran,
singular am?ar). The groups
were the Kel Ahaggar, Kel
Ajjer, Kel Ayr, Adrar n
Fughas, Iw?ll?m?dan, and
Kel Gres.
Following African countries'
achieving independence in
the 1960s, they divided
the Tuareg territory among
their modern nations: Niger,
Mali, Algeria, Libya, and
Burkina Faso.
Long-standing competition
for resources in the Sahel
has caused Tuareg conflicts
with neighboring African
groups, especially after
political disruption and
economic constraints following
French colonization and
independence. There have
been tight restrictions
placed on nomadization because
of high population growth.
Desertification is exacerbated
by human activity i.e; exploitation
of resources and the increased
firewood needs of growing
cities. Today, some Tuareg
are experimenting with farming;
some have been forced to
abandon herding and seek
jobs in towns and cities.
In Mali, a Tuareg uprising
resurfaced in the Adrar
N'Fughas mountains in the
1960s, following Mali's
independence. Several tuareg
joined, including eg tuareg
from the Adrar des Iforas
in northeastern Mali. The
1960 rebellion was a fight
between a group of Tuareg
against the independent
state of Mali, which was
then only recently formed.
The Malian Army suppressed
the revolt. Resentment among
the Tuareg fueled the second
uprising.
This second uprising was
in May 1990. At this time,
in the aftermath of a clash
between government soldiers
and Tuareg outside a prison
in Tchin-Tabaraden, Niger,
Tuaregs in both Mali and
Niger claimed autonomy for
their traditional homeland:
(Tenere, capital Agadez,
in Niger and the Azawad
and Kidal regions of Mali).
Deadly clashes between Tuareg
fighters (with leaders such
as Mano Dayak) and the military
of both countries followed,
with deaths numbering well
into the thousands. Negotiations
initiated by France and
Algeria led to peace agreements
(January 11, 1992 in Mali
and 1995 in Niger). Both
agreements called for decentralization
of national power and guaranteed
the integration of Tuareg
resistance fighters into
the countries' respective
national armies.
Major fighting between the
Tuareg resistance and government
security forces ended after
the 1995 and 1996 agreements.
As of 2004, sporadic fighting
continued in Niger between
government forces and Tuareg
groups struggling for independence.
In 2007, a new surge in
violence occurred.
[edit]
Traditional social stratification
Traditionally, Tuareg society
is hierarchical, with nobility
and vassals. Each Tuareg
clan (tawshet) is made up
of several family groups,
led by their collective
chiefs, the amghar. A series
of tribes tawsheten may
bond together under an Amenokal,
forming a Kel clan confederation.
Tuareg self identify is
related only to their specific
Kel, which means "those
of". E.g. Kel Dinnig
(those of the east), Kel
Ataram (those of the west).
[edit]
Nobility
The work of pastoralism
was specialized according
to social class. Tels are
ruled by the imús¯a?
(Imajaghan, The Proud and
Free) nobility, warrior-aristocrats
who organized group defense,
livestock raids, and the
long-distance caravan trade.
Below them were a number
of specialised métier
castes. The ím?ad
(Imghad, singular Amghid),
the second rank of Tuareg
society, were free vassal-herdsmen
and warriors, who pastured
and tended most of the confederation's
livestock. Formerly enslaved
vassals of specific Imajaghan,
they are said by tradition
to be descended from nobility
in the distant past, and
thus maintain a degree of
social distance from lower
orders. Traditionally, some
merchant castes had a higher
status than all but the
nobility among their more
settled compatriots to the
south. With time, the difference
between the two castes has
eroded in some places, following
the economic fortunes of
the two groups.
Imajaghan have traditionally
disdained certain types
of labor and prided themselves
in their warrior skills.
The existence of lower servile
and semi-servile classes
has allowed for the development
of highly ritualised poetic,
sport, and courtship traditions
among the Imajaghan. Following
colonial subjection, independence,
and the famines of the 1970s
and 1980s, noble classes
have more and more been
forced to abandon their
caste differences. They
have taken on labor and
lifestyles they might traditionally
have rejected.
[edit]
Client castes
After the adoption of Islam,
a separate class of religious
clerics, the Ineslemen or
marabouts, also became integral
to Tuareg social structure.
Following the decimation
of many clans' noble Imajaghan
caste in the colonial wars
of the 19th and 20th centuries,
the Ineslemen gained leadership
in some clans, despite their
often servile origins. Traditionally
Ineslemen clans were not
armed. They provided spiritual
guidance for the nobility,
and received protection
and alms in return.
Inhæd?æn (Inadan),
were a blacksmith-client
caste who fabricated and
repaired the saddles, tools,
household equipment and
other material needs of
the community. In most communities,
the Inadin were freedmen
drawn from the servile éklan
caste and considered outside
the Tel. Thus, they were
considered excluded from
Tuareg society proper.[5]
[edit]
Bonded castes and slaves
As did many other ethnic
groups in West Africa, the
Tuareg once held slaves
(éklan / Ikelan in
Tamasheq, Bouzou in Hausa,
Bella in Songhai). In general,
Tuareg skin color is darker
than most Mediterranean
Berbers, and lighter than
most sub-Saharan populations.
The Tuareg refer to themselves
as "red-skinned",
like most other Saharan
peoples, including the Maures,
and Tubu.[citation needed]
As the Tuareg moved south
on the continent in the
11th century AD, they took
slaves as prisoners of war.
Most slaves were taken from
among sub-Saharan Africans:
Songhay, Djerma and Hausa
communities, groups who
also held slaves. These
éklan once formed
a distinct social class
in Tuareg society. Slaves
lived near their owners
as domestic servants and
herders, and functioned
as part of the family, with
close social interactions.
Some Tuareg noble and vassal
men married slaves, and
their children became freemen.
In this sense, éklan
formed distinct sub-communities;
they were a class held in
an inherited serf-like condition,
common among societies in
pre-colonial West Africa.
When French colonial governments
were established, they passed
legislation to abolish slavery,
but did not enforce it.
Some commentators believe
the French interest was
directed more at dismantling
the traditional Tuareg political
economy, which depended
on slave labor for herding,
than at freeing the slaves.
Such scholars note that
the French were trying to
"pacify" the fiercely
resistant Tuareg. This skeptical
view ignores the French
elimination of slavery in
their former colonies in
the Caribbean.[6][7][8][9][10]
While post-independence
states have sought to outlaw
slavery, results have been
mixed. Traditional caste
relationships have continued
in many places, including
the institution of slavery.[11][12][13][14][15][16]
According to the Travel
Channel show Bob Geldof
in Africa, the descendants
of those slaves known as
the Bella are still slaves
in all but name. In Niger,
where the practice of slavery
was outlawed in 2003, a
study found that almost
8% of the population are
still enslaved.[17]
[edit]
Tuareg territoryAreas where
significant numbers of Tuaregs
live
The Tuareg people inhabit
a large area, covering almost
all the middle and western
Sahara and the north-central
Sahel. In Tuareg terms,
the Sahara is not one desert
but many, so they call it
Tinariwen ("the Deserts").
Among the many deserts in
Africa, there is the true
desert Tenere. Other deserts
are more and less arid,
flat and mountainous: Adrar,
Tagant, Tawat (Touat) Tanezruft,
Adghagh n Fughas, Tamasna,
Azawagh, Adar, Damargu,
Tagama, Manga, Ayr, Tarramit
(Termit), Kawar, Djado,
Tadmait, Admer, Igharghar,
Ahaggar, Tassili N'Ajjer,
Tadrart, Idhan, Tanghart,
Fezzan, Tibesti, Kalansho,
Libyan Desert, etc.
[edit]
Tuareg confederations, political
centers, and leaders
At the turn of the 19th
century, the Tuareg territory
was organized into confederations,
each ruled by a supreme
Chief (Amenokal), along
with a counsel of senior
tribes people elected to
assist the chief.
• Kel Ajjer or Azjar:
central Aghat (Ghat).
• Kel Ayer, or Lisawan:
keita, Tahoua, Ader,Aghat
(Ghat).
• Kel Ahaggar, in
Ahaggar mountains
• Kel Adagh, or Kel
Assuk: Kidal, and Tin Buktu
• Iwillimmidan Kel
Ataram, or Western Iwillimmidan:
Méneka, and Azawagh
region
• Iwillimmidan Kel
Denneg, or Eastern Iwillimmidan:
In Tibaraden, Abalagh, Teliya
Azawagh.
• Kel Gres: Zinder
and Tanut (Tanout) and south
into northern Nigeria.
• Kel Ayr: Assodé,
Agadez, In Gal, Timia and
Ifrwan.
Traditionally, the most
famous Tuareg leader was
a woman, Tin Hinan, heroine
and spiritual leader, who
founded a legendary kingdom
in the Ahaggar mountains.
Other confederation leaders
followed under the title
of Amenokal (Chief), of
whom the most famous include:
• Amattaza, of the
Lisawan
• Afadandan, of the
Lisawan
• Karidanna, of the
Iwillimmidan
• Waisimudan, of Iwillimidan
• Aljilani Ag Ibrahim,
of Iwillimidan
• Busari Ag Akhmad,
of Iwillimidan
• Musa Ag Amastan,
of Kel Ahaggar
• Ibrahim Ag Abakkada,
of Kel Azjar
• Amud, of Kel Azjar
• Makhammad Ag Katami,
of Iwillimmidan
• Balkhu, of Kel Ayr
• Wan Agoda, of Kel
Faday (Kel Ayr)
• Ahitaghal, of Kel
Ahaggar
• Akhanokhan, of Kel
Azjar
• Khadakhada, of Iwillimidan
• Alkhurer, of Iwillimidan
• Bazu, Iwillimidan
• Makhammad Wan Ag
Alkhurer Iwillimidan
• Abdurrakhman Tagama,
of Kel Ayr
• Hammed Almomin Iwillimidan
• Fihrun Ag Amansar,
of Iwillimidan
• Atisi Ag Amellal
of Kel Ahaggar
• Akhamok Ag Ihemma
of Kel Ahaggar
• Bay Ag Akhamok of
Kel Ahaggar
• Khamzata Ag Makhammad,
of Iwillimidan
• Edaber Ag Makhammad
the new Amenokal of Kel
Ahaggar
[edit]
CultureTuareg nomads in
the south of Algeria
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(March 2009)
The Tuareg are matrilineal,
though not matriarchal.
Unlike in many other Muslim
societies, women do not
traditionally wear the veil,
whereas men do. The most
famous Tuareg symbol is
the Tagelmust (also called
éghéwed in
Malian Tamasheq, or referred
to as a Cheche, pronounced
"Shesh", from
Berber), an often indigo
blue-colored veil called
Alasho. The men's facial
covering originates from
the belief that such action
wards off evil spirits.
It may have related instrumentally
from the need for protection
from the harsh desert sands
as well. It is a firmly
established tradition, as
is the wearing of amulets
containing verses from the
Qur'an. Taking on the veil
is associated with the rite
of passage to manhood; men
begin wearing a veil when
they reach maturity. The
veil usually conceals their
face, excluding their eyes
and the top of the nose.
Many Tuareg today are either
settled agriculturalists
or nomadic cattle breeders,
though there are also blacksmiths
and caravan leaders.
The Tuareg are sometimes
called the "Blue People"
because the indigo pigment
in the cloth of their traditional
robes and turbans stained
the wearer's skin dark blue.
Today, the traditional indigo
turban is still preferred
for celebrations, and generally
Tuaregs wear clothing and
turbans in a variety of
colors.
[edit]
Language
Main article: Tuareg languages
The Tuareg speak Tamajaq/Tamasheq/Tamahaq,
a southern Berber language
having several dialects
among the different regions.
The Berber dialects spoken
in the Rif (Tamazight),
Atlas and Souss regions
of Morocco differ somewhat
from each other and also
from the Tuareg dialects
spoken further south. Berber
is an Afro-Asiatic language
like Semitic languages,
Chadic languages and Pharaonic
Egyptian. The language is
called Tamasheq by western
Tuareg in Mali, Tamahaq
among Algerian and Libyan
Tuareg, and Tamajaq in the
Azawagh and Aïr regions,
Niger. The Tamajaq writing
system, Tifinagh (also called
Shifinagh), descends directly
from the original Berber
script used by the Numidians
in pre-Roman times.[2]
[edit]
Religion
The Tuareg are predominantly
Muslim and generally follow
the Maliki madhhab.
[edit]
ArtsTuareg Blacksmith
Much Tuareg art is in the
form of jewelry, leather
and metal saddle decorations
called Trik, and finely
crafted swords. The Inadan
community makes traditional
handicrafts. Among their
products are: Tanaghilt
or Zakkat (the 'Agadez Cross'
or 'Croix d'Agadez'); the
Tuareg Takoba, many beautiful
gold and silver-made necklaces
called 'Takaza'; and earrings
called 'Tizabaten'.
In 2007, Stanford's Cantor
Arts Center opened an exhibition,
"Art of Being Tuareg:
Sahara Nomads in a Modern
World", the first such
exhibit in the United States.
It was curated by Tom Seligman,
director of the center.
He had first spent time
with the Tuareg in 1971
when he traveled through
the Sahara after serving
in the Peace Corps. The
exhibition included beautifully
crafted and adorned functional
objects such as camel saddles,
tents, bags, swords, amulets,
cushions, dresses, earrings,
spoons and drums.[18] The
exhibition also was shown
at the University of California,
Los Angeles Fowler Museum
in Los Angeles and the Smithsonian’s
National Museum of African
Art in Washington, DC.
Throughout history, the
Tuareg were renowned and
respected warriors. Their
decline as a military might
came with the introduction
of fire arms, weapons which
the Tuareg did not possess.
The Tuareg warrior attire
consisted of a Takoba (sword),
Allagh (lance) and Aghar
(shield) made of antelope's
skin.
[edit]
Traditional music
Traditional Tuareg music
has two major components:
the moncord violin anzad
played often during night
parties and a small tambour
covered with goatskin called
tende, performed during
camel and horse races, and
other festivities. Traditional
songs called Asak and Tisiway
(poems) are sung by women
and men during feasts and
social occasions. Another
popular Tuareg musical genre
is takamba, characteristic
for its Afro-Berber percussions.
In the 1980s rebel fighters
founded Tinariwen, a Tuareg
band that fuses electric
guitars and indigenous musical
styles. Tinariwen is one
of the best known and authentic
Tuareg bands. Especially
in areas that were cut off
during the Tuareg rebellion
(e.g., Adrar des Iforas),
they were practically the
only music available, which
made them locally famous
and their songs/lyrics (eg
Abaraybone, ...) are well
known by the locals. They
released their first CD
in 2000, and toured in Europe
and the United States in
2004. The Niger-based band
Etran Finatawa combines
Tuareg and Wodaabe members,
playing a combination of
traditional instruments
and electric guitars.
Many music groups emerged
after the 1980s cultural
revival. Among the Tartit,
Imaran and known artists
are: Abdallah Oumbadougou
from Ayr, Baly Othmany of
Djanet.
[edit]
Tuareg Music genres, groups
and artists
• Majila Ag Khamed
Ahmad, singer Asak (vocal
music), of Aduk, Niger
• Almuntaha female
Anzad (Tuareg violin) player,
of Aduk, Niger
• Ajju female Anzad
(Tuareg violin) player,
of Agadez, Niger
• Islaman singer,
genre Asak (vocal music),
of Abalagh, Niger
• Tambatan singer,
genre Asak (vocal music),
Tchin-Tabaraden, Niger
• Alghadawiat female
Anzad (Tuareg violin) player,
of Akoubounou, Niger
• Taghdu female Anzad
(Tuareg violin) player,
of Aduk, Niger
• In Tayaden singer
and guitar player, Mali
• Kiddu Ag Hossad
singer and guitar player,
Mali
• Baly Othmani singer,
luth player, Djanet Algeria
• Abdalla Ag Umbadugu,
singer and guitar player,
Agadez, Niger
[edit]
Music and culture festivals
The Desert Festival in Mali's
Timbuktu provides one opportunity
to see Tuareg culture and
dance and hear their music.
Other festivals include:
• Cure Salee Festival
in the oasis of In-Gall,
Niger
• Sabeiba Festival
in Ganat (Djanet), Algeria
• Shiriken Festival
in Akabinu (Akoubounou),
Niger
• Takubelt Tuareg
Festival in Mali
• Ghat Festival in
Aghat (Ghat), Libya
• Le Festival au Désert
in Mali
• Ghadames Berber
and Tuareg Festival in Libya
[edit]
Games
Tuareg traditional games
include:
• Tiddas, played with
small stones and sticks.
• Izagag, played with
small stones or dried fruits.
• Iswa, played by
picking up stones while
throwing another stone.
• Melgha, children
hide themselves and another
tries to find and touch
them before they reach the
well and drink.
• Tabillant, traditional
Tuareg wrestling
• Alamom, wrestling
while running
• Solagh, another
type of wrestling
• Tammazaga or Tammalagha,
race on camel back
• Takket, singing
and playing all night.
• Takadant, children
try to imagine what the
others are thinking.
• Shishagheren, writing
the name of one's lover
to see if this person brings
good luck.
• Taqqanen, telling
devinettes and enigmas.
• Maru Maru, young
people mime how the tribe
works.
[edit]
EconomyTuareg selling crafts
to tourists in the Hoggar
(Algeria)
Tuareg are distinguished
in their native language
as the Imouhar, meaning
the free people; the overlap
of meaning has increased
local cultural nationalism.
The Tuareg are a pastoral
people, having an economy
based on livestock breeding,
trading, and agriculture.[2]
A contemporary variant is
occurring in northern Niger,
in a traditionally Tuareg
territory that comprises
most of the uranium-rich
land of the country. The
central government in Niamey
has shown itself unwilling
to cede control of the highly
profitable mining to indigenous
clans. The Tuareg are determined
not to relinquish the prospect
of substantial economic
benefit. The French government
has independently tried
to defend a French firm,
Areva, established in Niger
for fifty years and now
mining the massive Imouraren
deposit.
Additional complaints against
Areva are that it is: "...plundering...the
natural resources and [draining]
the fossil deposits. It
is undoubtedly an ecological
catastrophe."[citation
needed] These mines yield
uranium ores, which are
then processed to produce
yellowcake, crucial to the
nuclear power industry (as
well as aspirational nuclear
powers). In 2007, some Tuareg
people in Niger allied themselves
with the Niger Movement
for Justice (MNJ), a rebel
group operating in the north
of the country. During 2004-2007,
U.S. Special Forces teams
trained Tuareg units of
the Nigerien Army in the
Sahel region as part of
the Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism
Partnership. Some of these
trainees are reported to
have fought in the 2007
rebellion within the MNJ.
The goal of these Tuareg
appears to be economic and
political control of ancestral
lands, rather than operating
from religious and political
ideologies.[citation needed]
Despite the Sahara’s
erratic and unpredictable
rainfall patterns, the Tuareg
have managed to survive
in the hostile desert environment
for centuries. Over recent
years however, depletion
of water by the uranium
exploitation process combined
with the effects of climate
change are threatening their
ability to subsist. Uranium
mining has diminished and
degraded Tuareg grazing
lands. Not only does the
mining industry produce
radioactive waste that can
contaminate crucial sources
of ground water resulting
in cancer, stillbirths,
and genetic defects but
it also uses up huge quantities
of water in a region where
water is already scarce.
This is exacerbated by the
increased rate of desertification
thought to be the result
of global warming. Lack
of water forces the Tuareg
to compete with southern
farming communities for
scarce resources and this
has led to tensions and
clashes between these communities.
The precise levels of environmental
and social impact of the
mining industry have proved
difficult to monitor due
to governmental obstruction.
[edit]
Ethnic classificationClose
up of an old tuareg from
Algeria
The Tuareg are classified
as a Berber group, and are
closely related to both
Northwest African Berbers
and West Africans, in terms
of culture and ethnicity.
Some scholars argue that
the Tuareg are defined by
language and culture, not
by ethnicity. They define
only predominantly Tamasheq
speakers as "Tuareg"
(and, presumably, by implication,
also individuals of Tuareg
descent who have assimilated
into various countries and
no longer speak Tamasheq
languages).[19] Lack of
consensus on how to classify
the Tuareg is probably part
of the reason for the widely
varying estimates of population
size.
[edit]
Ethnic flag
The Tuareg ethnic flag is
red, white, and blue. [20]
[edit]
In popular culture
• Spanish author Alberto
Vázquez-Figueroa's
novel Tuareg (1980) was
his most critically and
commercially successful,
with global sales in excess
of 5,000,000 copies.
• The 2005 film Sahara
featured a fictionalised
group of Tuareg as a faction
in a civil war underway
in Mali.
• Bruce Sterling used
a fictionalised Tuareg tribe
in his novel Islands in
the Net.
• David Ball's 1999
novel Empires of Sand tells
the story of French and
Tuareg cousins.
• In 2003 Volkswagen
introduced a new SUV named
the Touareg.
• In the Nickelodeon
animated series, Avatar:
The Last Airbender, the
nomadic characters known
as "sand benders"
are based on the Tuareg
people.
[edit]
References
1. ^ "Q&A: Tuareg
unrest". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6982266.stm.
Retrieved on 2008-01-04.
2. ^ a b c d "Who are
the Tuareg?". Smithsonian
Institution. http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/tuareg/who.html.
Retrieved on 2007-11-03.
3. ^ See Rodd 1926.
4. ^ "Charles de Foucauld
- Sera béatifié
à l'automne 2005".
http://www.africamission-mafr.org/foucauld2.htm.
Retrieved on 2007-11-03.
5. ^ Samuel Decalo. Historical
Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow
Press, London and New Jersey
(1979). ISBN 0810812290.
See specific entries for
each caste / clan title.
6. ^ Edouard Bernus. "Les
palmeraies de l'Aïr",
Revue de l'Occident Musulman
et de la Méditerranée,
11, (1972) pp.37-50.
7. ^ Frederick Brusberg.
"Production and Exchange
in the Saharan Air",
Current Anthropology, Vol.
26, No. 3. (Jun., 1985),
pp. 394-395. Field research
on the economics of the
Aouderas valley, 1984.
8. ^ Samuel Decalo. Historical
Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow
Press, London and New Jersey
(1979). ISBN 0810812290
9. ^ Jolijn Geels. Niger.
Bradt London and Globe Pequot
New York (2006). ISBN 1841621528
10. ^ Michael J. Mortimore.
"The Changing Resources
of Sedentary Communities
in Air, Southern Sahara",
Geographical Review, Vol.
62, No. 1. (Jan., 1972),
pp. 71-91.
11. ^
• Anti-Slavery International
& Association Timidira,
Galy kadir Abdelkader, ed.
Niger: Slavery in Historical,
Legal and Contemporary Perspectives.
March 2004
12. ^ Hilary Andersson,
"Born to be a slave
in Niger", BBC Africa,
Niger
13. ^ "Kayaking to
Timbuktu, Writer Sees Slave
Trade, More", National
Geographic.
14. ^ "The Shackles
of Slavery in Niger"
15. ^ "NIGER: Slavery
- an unbroken chain"
16. ^ "On the way to
freedom, Niger's slaves
stuck in limbo", Christian
Science Monitor
17. ^ "The Shackles
of Slavery in Niger",
ABC News]
18. ^ "First Exhibition
of Tuareg Art and Culture
in America Appears at Stanford
Before Traveling to the
Smithsonian's National Museum
of African Art", Cantor
Arts Center
19. ^ http://wwwusers.imaginet.fr/~yusuf/introduction.html
20. ^ Tuareg ethnic flag:
• Ghoubeid Alojaly,
Karl Prasse, Ghabdouane
Mohamed, Dictionnaire touareg-français,
Copenhague, Museum Tusculanum,
2003 (2 vols., 1031 p.)
- ISBN 8772898445
• Francis James Rennell
Rodd, People of the veil.
Being an account of the
habits, organisation and
history of the wandering
Tuareg tribes which inhabit
the mountains of Air or
Asben in the Central Sahara,
London, MacMillian &
Co., 1926 (repr. Oosterhout,
N.B., Anthropological Publications,
1966)
• Heath Jeffrey 2005:
A Grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg
of Mali). New York: Mouton
de Gruyer. Mouton Grammar
Library, 35. ISBN 3-11-018484-2
• Rando et al. (1998)
"Mitochondrial DNA
analysis of northwest African
populations reveals genetic
exchanges with European,
near-eastern, and sub-Saharan
populations". Annals
of Human Genetics 62(6):
531-50; Watson et al. (1996)
mtDNA sequence diversity
in Africa. American Journal
of Human Genetics 59(2):
437-44; Salas et al. (2002)
"The Making of the
African mtDNA Landscape".
American Journal of Human
Genetics 71: 1082-1111.
These are good sources for
information on the genetic
heritage of the Tuareg and
their relatedness to other
populations.
[edit]
Further reading
• Edmond Bernus, "Les
Touareg," pp. 162-171
in Vallées du Niger,
Paris: Éditions de
la Réunion des Musées
Nationaux, 1993.
• Andre Bourgeot,
Les Sociétés
Touarègues, Nomadisme,
Identité, Résistances,
Paris: Karthala, 1995.
• Hélène
Claudot-Hawad, ed., "Touregs:
Exil et Résistance".
Révue du Monde Musulman
et de la Méiterranée,
No. 57, Aix en Provence:
Edisud, 1991.
• Claudot-Hawad, Touaregs,
Portrait en Fragments, Aix
en Provence: Edisud, 1993.
• Hélène
and Hawad Claudot-Hawad,
"Touaregs: Voix Solitaires
sous l'Horizon Confisque",
Ethnies-Documents No. 20-21,
Hiver, 1996.
• Mano Dayak, Touareg:
La Tragedie, Paris: Éditions
Lattes, 1992.
• Sylvie Ramir, Les
Pistes de l'Oubli: Touaregs
au Niger, Paris: éditions
du Felin, 1991.
[edit]
External links
• Franco Paolinellli,
"Tuareg Salt Caravans",
Bradshaw Foundation
• Art and Life in
Africa Online: Tuareg, University
of Iowa
• Origin and History
of the Tuaregs
• The Massacres at
Tchin Tarabaden: 10 years
later!. This press release
(7 May 2000), while polemical,
is useful for a pro-Tuareg
view of the conflicts in
Mali and Niger.
• Tuareg Culture and
News, Website
• Ethnologue 14 pages
for Niger, Mali, etc., used
for population estimates.
• Tuareg is not an
Ethnos, accessed 2 February
2004, available on Internet
Archive at [2]. Cited for
the low-end estimate of
population.
• A comprehensive
tuareg chronology along
with lists of amenokals
from Kel Ahaggar, Kel Adagh
and Kel Azawagh (in Italian).
• Tuareg Musicand
Tuareg Photos from www.agraw.com.
Wikimedia Commons has media
related to: Tuareg
• le site internet
de tassouft et de ses amis
(hoggar, algérie)
(French)
• Maps of Niger, pictures
of Agadez, Tuaregs, and
handcraft from Niger; also
a forum (French)
• Tuareg Culture and
Art
• Dr Jean Clottes
honoured by the Blue Tuareg
people
• "Art of Being
Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in
a Modern World", Stanford
University's Cantor Arts
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